DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

WATER-SUPPLY Paper 375— D 



GROUND WATER 



BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEVADA 



O. E. IVIEINZER 



Contributions to the hydrology of the United States, 1915 
(Pages 85-116) 



Issued August 4, 1915 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1915 



Afonograph 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

M 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water- SrrppiiY Paper 375— D 



GROUND WATER 



BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEVADA 



O. E. MEINZER 



Contributions to the hydrology of the United States, 1915 
(Pages 85-116) 



Issued August 4, 1915 




Monograph 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1915 



\t>^? 



CONTENTS. 



&^;;^^ 



Introduction 85 

Ground water for irrigation in Nevada 85 

Geography of Big Smoky Valley 88 

Investigation of ground water in Big Smoky Valley 89 

Physiography 90 

Mountains 90 

Allu\dal fans 90 

Ancient beaches 90 

Playas 91 

Fault scarps 91 

Geologic formations 92 

Prequaternary rocks 92 

Quaternary deposits 93 

Precipitation 94 

Ground-water intake 95 

Contributions by permanent streams 95 

Contributions by floods from dry canyons 96 

Contributions by underflow 96 

Contributions by precipitation in the valley 96 

Ground-water discharge 96 

Processes 96 

Discharge from springs 97 

Discharge from soil and plants 97 

Quantities discharged 99 

Water levels 100 

Water-bearing capacities 101 

Artesian conditions 102 

Drilling methods 103 

Quality of water 105 

Irrigation 106 

Developments 106 

Crops and markets 108 

Irrigation from wells 108 

Wells 108 

Pumps : 109 

Power 110 

Cost 113 

Areas 115 

Conclusions 115 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 
Plate VI. Map of the shallow-water area of the upper Big Smoky Valley, Nev. 90 
VII. Map of the shallow-water area of the lower Big Smoky Valley, Nev. 90 
Figure 17. Map of Nevada showing areas covered by water-supply papers and 

the Pleistocene lakes in Big Smoky Valley, Nev 87 

18. Diagram of a pumping plant adapted for conditions in Big Smoky 

Valley, Nev Ill 

II 



n. nth. 

AUG 'IB 1315 



^ 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEVADA. 



By O. E. Meinzer. 



INTRODUCTION. 
GROUND WATER FOR IRRIGATION IN NEVADA. 

The agricultural conquest of vast areas of arable land belonging 
to the public domain of the United States — the conversion of these 
apparently boundless expanses of Government land into hundreds of 
thousands of productive farms and well-provided homes within the 
last few decades — forms a brilliant chapter in the history of this 
country. A consideration of this marvelous agricultural develop- 
mejit leads at once, however, to a serious problem of the jiot distant 
future. Only a few years ago the supply of agricultural land in the 
great West was commonly assumed to be inexhaustible; to-day the 
country is beginning to realize that virtually all the tracts which 
can readily be made productive without irrigation have been occu- 
pied and that practically all the streams which can be utihzed for 
irrigation without the installation of expensive storage projects have 
been appropriated. Moreover, in comparison with the rapid progress 
in the past, the limits of agricultural development, even with the 
greatest possible conservation of soil and water and the appUcation 
of the best cultural methods, appear to be not indefinitely remote. 
But the realization in recent years of the fact that the part of the 
pubhc domain which has value for agriculture is rapidly being taken 
up has itself provided a powerful motive for further acquisition of 
agricultural land and has induced men and w^omen eager for farms 
and homes of their own to settle in large numbers in areas where 
the conditions are so unfavorable or so poorly understood that failure 
and suffering are inevitable. 

In Nevada the bedrock forms a corrugated surface consisting of 
more or less parallel mountain ranges and broad intervening troughs 
that are filled to great depths with rock waste washed from the 
mountains. These great deposits of rock waste were in large part 
laid down by torrential streams and are relatively coarse and porous. 
Because they are porous they allow the rain that falls upon them 
and the run-off that reaches them from the mountains to sink into 
them, and consequently the desert valleys which they underlie have 

85 



86 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

an exceptionally arid aspect. These deposits are, however, great 
water conservers, for they constitute huge reservoirs in which the 
supplies received by percolation are stored, and, to the limit of the 
capacity of the reservoirs, are protected from evaporation. So well 
are these supphes hidden that their existence was not suspected by 
many of the early travelers, and even to-day long desert roads with- 
out watering places lead over areas where ground water could easily 
be obtained. 

The demand for farm homes is so great and will continue to be so 
great that strenuous efforts will be made to utilize by irrigation every 
existing water supply. The ground waters underlying the Nevada 
deserts will certainly receive more attention in the future than they 
have in the past, and costly projects for their recovery will be under- 
taken. Some of these projects will no doubt fail, but others will 
eventually be successful. So great is the eagerness for land that the 
report of a single flowing well or the skillful advertisements of a 
promoter may at any time start a stream of home seekers, ignorant 
of the actual conditions and difficulties, into almost any of the desert 
valleys of the West. 

It is very desirable that the possibilities of these valleys should 
be thoroughly investigated before they are invaded by home seekers. 
The helplessness of the ordinary settler when he confronts the unfa- 
miliar and inherently difficult problems of irrigation with ground 
waters is illustrated in Big Smoky VaUey as weU as in other areas. 
In the south basin of this vaUey (see fig. 17) there have been a few 
attempts at irrigation with ground water, but they were made either 
so far up the slopes that the high lift rendered the cost prohibitive 
or else in the alkali area where agriculture is not feasible; none appar- 
ently have been made in the zone in which the ground-water conditions 
are the most favorable. 

As the ground water is hidden beneath the surface there is neces- 
sarily much uncertainty as to its occurrence, and therefore correspond- 
ing caution should be observed in regard to ground-water projects. 
Much can be determined as to the ground waters of desert valleys, 
however, even where no wells have been sunk, provided the proper 
observations are made and the proper criteria applied. It is gener- 
ally possible to ascertain definitely where the ground water is near 
the surface, to outline the shaUow-water areas, and to make an intel- 
ligent forecast of the depth to water in other parts of the vaUey. 
If sufficient observations are made it is also generally possible to 
form a rough estimate of the quantity of water that is annually avail- 
able and to predict to some extent the capacity of wells, the quality of 
the water, and the cost of recovery. To begin to develop the ground- 
water supply of a valley without first investigating its ground- 
water conditions is as unwise as it would be to start to build a railroad 



GROUIs^D WATER IX BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 



87 




Drainageljasinof 
Big Sinolgrvaliey 
Darher areas show 
Pleistocene lake beds: 
No. 1, Lake Tqyabe , 
A^c. 2, Lake Tanopah 

Broken line shmvs 

boimdoTy between the north 
basin (upper valley) and the 
sooth basin (lower, valley) 



Area described in Water- Supply 
Paper 224 ^^ ^ 



Are a described in Water - Supp"^ 
Paper in prepacration 



Approximate position of the 

bouQdar^'between the Great 

Basin and the Colorado River basin 



Figure 17.— Map of Nevada showing areas covered by water-supply papers and the Pleistocene lakes in 

Big Smoky Valley. 



88 CONTEIBUTIOXS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1015. 

without first having the route surveyed, and the financial results 
are likely to be no less disastrous. 

Even where a satisfactory supply of ground water is assured irri- 
gation may be impracticable because of the high cost of recovering 
the water or the unfavorable climatic, soil, or market conditions. 
The problem of cost must be attacked from two principal directions: 
(1) Means must be devised for recovering the water at the least pos- 
sible expense, and (2) crops must be found, methods of irrigation and 
cultivation devised, and markets developed which will result in the 
largest possible returns from each unit of water used. In many 
cases different crops and different methods of irrigation and cultiva- 
tion will be required with ground-w^ater than with surface-water 
supplies, and for this reason the ground-water investigations of the 
Geological Survey should be supplemented by correlative agricultural 
investigations by the experiment stations. 

GEOGRAPHY OF BIG SMOKY VALLEY. 

Big Smoky Valley is a typical Nevada desert valley — a plain 
hemmed in by mountain ranges and underlain by porous rock waste 
eroded from these ranges and saturated with water discharged from 
them. Like most of the valleys of the State, it has a general north- 
south elongation and an interior drainage. The valley itself covers 
somewhat more than 1,300 square miles (exclusive of lone Valley), 
and the entire drainage basin covers 3,250 square miles, has a length 
of 130 miles, and extends from about the geographic center of the 
State to a point less than 20 miles from the California line. The 
valley lies in parts of Lander, Nye, and Esmeralda counties and is 
crossed by the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth parallels and the one 
hundred and seventeenth meridian. (See fig. 17.) 

The drainage basin of Big Smoky Valley is divided by a low, 
gentle, alluvial swell west of Manhattan into a north basin, which 
contains the upper valley, and a south basin, which contains the lower 
valley. Each of these basins held a lake in the Pleistocene epoch 
and each at present contains an alkali flat. lone Valley, which lies 
west of Big Smoky Valley proper and has a drainage basin of about 
500 square miles, discharges into the lower valley from the north- 
west and hence forms a part of the south basin. The lowest point 
in the north basin is 5,443 feet above sea level and the lowest in the 
south basin is about 4,720 feet. Arc Dome, the culminating point 
of the inclosing mountain rim, is 11,775 feet above sea level. It is 
in the Toyabe Range, which forms the west edge of the north basin. 

The climate is arid and exhibits the characteristic features of arid- 
ity. At a station maintained in the northern part of the vaUey the 
average annual precipitation during a period of six years was found 
to be 6.55 inches. In the southern part the precipitation is still less, 
and only on a few of the highest mountains is it considerably more. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 89 

Owing to differences in both latitude and altitude there are appre- 
ciable differences in temperature within the region, the climate being 
distinctly more rigorous in the northern than in the southern part of 
the valley. 

The drainage basin of Big Smoky Valley is sparsely populated. 
Tonopah, situated near its southeast corner, contains most of the 
inhabitants. In 1913 it was said to have a population of 7,000 and 
was probably the largest mining town iil the State. Nearly all the 
rest of the inhabitants of the basin live in the mining and milling 
towns of Manhattan, Round Mountain, and Millers and at a number 
of ranches along the west side of the northern part of the valley. 

Big Smoky Valle^^ is most conveniently reached over branch lines 
connecting with the main line of the Southern Pacific Railroad between 
Oakland, Cal., and Ogden, Utah. A branch of the Southern Pacific 
leads from the main line at Hazen to Rhodes, where it connects with 
the Tonopah & Goldfield Railroad. In 1913 PuUman cars were 
operated daily between Oakland and Goldfield by way of Tonopah. 
The Tonopah & Goldfield Railroad also connects at Rhodes with a 
branch of the Southern Pacific leading to southern California by way 
of Owens Valley, and at Goldfield with the Las Vegas & Tonopah 
Railroad and the Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad. The Las Vegas & 
Tonopah line leads to Las Vegas, which is on the San Pedro, Los 
Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad. Automobile stages connect Tonopah 
with Manhattan and Round Mountain. The northern part of Big 
Smoky VaUey can be reached by the Nevada Central Railroad, a 
narrow-gage line which connects Battle Mountain, on the main line 
of the Southern Pacific, with Austin, situated a few miles northwest 
of this valley. 

Most of the ranches of this region have been in existence a long time, 
and their history is related to that of the mining camps to which they 
are tributary. As a rule they were located where small irrigation 
supplies could be obtained from springs or mountain streams and 
where consequently agriculture could be combined with cattle ranch- 
ing. The principal crops are alfalfa and wild hay, but vegetables, 
fruits, and other foodstuffs are produced for consumption in the local 
markets. The revival of mining activity since the Tonopah discovery 
in 1900 has created new markets for farm produce and has accord- 
ingly made the ranchers more prosperous. 

INVESTIGATION OF GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY. 

The ground water of the region was investigated by the writer in 
1913 and 1914, this valley being selected not because it has excep- 
tional ground-water possibilities but because it is believed to be more 
or less typical of the undeveloped valleys of the State. Only a few 
wells have been sunk in the valley, and practically no use has thus 
far been made of the ground water for irrigation. Since the inves- 



90 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES^ 1915. 

tigation was begun, however, flows have been struck in several wells 
drilled on the west side of the upper valley. These flows and the 
work of the United States Geological Survey have aroused interest 
in the subject of utilizing the ground-water supply. A comprehen- 
sive report with detailed maps of the vaUey is in preparation, but in 
order to meet the immediate need for information as a result of this 
new interest the present brief paper is published in advance of the 

complete report. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

fountains. — The upper vaUey is bordered on the west by the 
Toyabe Range and on the east by the Toquima Range. The lower 
valley is bordered on the north by the Toyabe and Shoshone ranges, 
on the east by the Toquima and San Antonio ranges, on the south by 
Lone Mountain, on the southwest by the Silver Peak Range, and on 
the west by the Monte Oris to Range. 

The Toyabe, which is the largest and loftiest of these ranges, consists 
of an undulating upland and a steep, rugged front facing the valley. 
There is evidence that the undulating upland was formed by long- 
continued erosion in a period when the mountains had less relief than 
at present, and that the steep front was produced later by faulting 
and uplift. The very steep front of Lone Mountain is also believed 
to be a fault scarp. 

Altogether about 625 square miles of mountain area is tributary to 
the upper valley and 1,050 square miles (includiixg 250 square miles 
in lone Valley) to the lower valley. The mountains adjacent to the 
lower valley are, however, lower and more arid than those adjacent 
to the upper valley and they supph^ less water. 

Alluvial fans. — Most of the surface of Big Smoky Valley consists of 
alluvial fans built by the streams out of the material washed from the 
mountains. Small graveUy fans that end abruptly and have little 
or no arable land are found at the mouths of the small dry canyons, 
and expanded, gently sloping fans are found at the mouths of the large 
canyons. The lower parts of the large fans contain extensive areas 
of exceUent soil. The largest areas of good soil in Big Smoky Valley 
are on the lower parts of the fans of Kmgton Creek and the Twin 
Rivers, on the gently sloping surface at the north and south ends of 
the alkali flat in the upper valley, and on the gently sloping surface 
that extends northwestward from the alkali flat in the lower valley. 

Ancient beaches. — In the Pleistocene epoch Big Smoky Valley con- 
tained two large lakes, one of which occupied the lowest parts of the 
north basin (PI. VI) and the other the lowest parts of the south 
basin (PL VII). The ancient lake in the north basin may appropri- 
ately be called Lake Toyabe, and the one in the south basin Lake 
Tonopah. 

Lake Toyabe at its highest level had a length of about 40 miles, a 
maximum width of 9 miles, and an area of approximately 225 square 




OF THE UPPER BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 



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U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



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GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 91 

miles, or 18 per cent of the drainage basin in which it lay. Its maxi- 
mum depth was about 170 feet, and its shore line, which, so far as 
was determined, is still horizontal, stood a short distance above the 
present 5,600-foot contour and measured about 85 miles in length. 
The maximum depth of the part of this lake that lay south of the 
ridges southeast of Roger's ranch was only about 70 feet. When the 
surface of the water went down the lake divided into two parts which 
were completely separated by an isthmus formed by these ridges. 

Lake Tonopah at its highest recognized level had a length of about 
22 miles, a maximum width of 5^ miles, and an area of approximately 
85 square miles, or only about two-fifths that of Lake Toyabe. This 
area was only 4.2 per cent of the total drainage basin tributary to 
the lake — a percentage less than one-fourth as great as that of Lake 
Toyabe. The maximum depth of Lake Tonopah was about 70 feet, 
and its highest shore line stood a little below the present 4,800-foot 
contour, or about 825 feet below that of Lake Toyabe. The total 
length of the Lake Tonopah shore line is estimated at 53 miles. 

The existence of these ancient lakes and the dimensions given in 
the foregoing paragraphs are deduced from the shore features which 
were formed by the waves and currents of the lakes and which are 
still in existence. These shore features consist almost entirely of 
graveUy beaches and beach ridges, or embankments, many of which 
are very definite structures that can be followed for a number of miles, 
the largest attaining heights of nearly 50 feet. In each basin they are 
found at several different levels, indicating that the surface of both 
lakes fluctuated. The highest discernible shore features are in posi- 
tions indicating that neither lake had an outlet, even at its highest 
level, and it is therefore inferred that the water of both lakes was salty. 

Playas. — The principal playas, or alkali flats, in Big Smoky VaUey 
are found in the depressions occupied by the two ancient lakes. The 
largest extends from the Daniels ranch almost to the Rogers ranch, 
is nearly 15 miles long, and has a maximum width of fully 6 miles. 
North of the Daniels ranch a flat, interrupted by beach ridges, extends 
for many miles, and south of the Rogers ranch another large flat 
extends toward Wood's ranch. The main play a of the lower vaUey 
occupies the depression extending from the vicinity of the French 
well south west ward to the Silver Peak Railroad. 

Fault scarps. — On the alluvial slopes east of the Toyabe Range and 
north and northwest of Lone Mountain there are numerous escarp- 
ments which face the valley and are believed to be due to recent 
faulting. In some localities there are two or three parallel escarp- 
ments with maximum displacement of more than 100 feet. Springs 
issue from the fault scarps back of Bowman's, Mrs. Gendron's, and 
McLeod's ranches, and the seepage supports a zone of vegetation 
that makes the scarps conspicuous as green bands. 
93729°— 15 2 



92 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 
GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 
PREQUATERNARY ROCKS. 

Limestone, quartzite, slate, and schist, aggregating several thousand 
feet in thickness and ranging in age from Lower Cambrian to Carbon- 
iferous,^ are the oldest rocks found in this region. Since their deposi- 
tion they have been extensively deformed, eroded, intruded by lavas, 
and largely covered by igneous bodies and sedimentary deposits. 
Originally they probably covered the entire region, but at present they 
are found over extensive areas only in the Toyabe, Toquima, Silver 
Peak, and Lone Mountain ranges. In the Toyabe Range they lie 
at the surface over most of the area between Birch Creek and Bow- 
man's ranch. 

Several great bodies of granite and associated crystalline rocks 
occur in this region. Wherever their relations have been determined 
they are intrusive in the Paleozoic strata and older than the Tertiary 
eruptive rocks. ^ Granite occurs over a large area north of Birch 
Creek and crops out extensively from Bowman's ranch to and beyond 
Wood's ranch. A large granite mass occupies the lofty central part 
of the Toquima Range, particularly in the region east of Round 
Mountain. Another large granite mass forms the main part of Lone 
Mountain, and granite crops out in the ridges farther southwest. 

Eruptive formations of Tertiary age, consisting of rhyolite and 
minor amounts of basalt and rocks of intermediate composition with 
associated tuffs and breccias, occur over extensive areas in all the 
ranges bordering Big Smoky Valley.^ They lie at the surface in all 
or nearly all the Shoshone Range tributary to Big Smoky Valley, 
in the southern part of the Toyabe Range and in other localities in 
this range, in large parts of the Toquima Range from the north to 
the south end, in much the greater part of the San Antonio and 
Monte Cristo ranges and the hill country north of the Monte Cristo 
Range, and in considerable areas in the Silver Peak and Lone 
Mountain ranges. 

Tertiary sedimentary rocks are best developed in the foothill region 
southwest of Lone Mountain and in the region west and southwest of 
Blair Junction, ^ but they are widely distributed in the ranges bordering 
the lower valley and either crop out or lie near the surface over 
extensive areas in the marginal parts of the lower valley and lone 
Valley. In some places there is a sharp structural unconformity 
between the Tertiary beds and the overlying Quaternary deposits, but 

1 Emmons, S. F., Geology of the Toyabe Range: U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th par., vol. 3, pp. 320-348, 1870. 

2 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of Cali- 
fornia: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, 1903; also Geology of the Tonopah mining district, Nev.r U. S, Geol. 
Survey Prof. Paper 42, 1905. 

3 Turner, H. W., The Esmeralda formation, a fresh-water lake deposit: U. S. Geol. Survey Twenty-first 
Ann. Rept., pt. 2, pp. 191-226, 1900. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 93 

generally the contact is not well shown. The sediments are largely 
of volcanic origin, and many of the outcrops consist almost entirely 
of volcanic tuffs interbedded with thick lava beds. 

QUATERNARY DEPOSITS. 

The upper valley and the greater part of the lower valley are under- 
lain by Quaternary deposits which have been only shghtly deformed 
and have suffered very little from erosion except in the upper parts 
of the alluvial slopes. 

As shown by the outcrops and the exposures in dug wells, the bulk 
of the Quaternary deposits consist of poorly assorted gravel, sand, 
and silt laid down by running water. Trains of gravel radiating 
from the mouths of the canyons are incased in a matrix of clayey 
material. The playas are underlain by silt and clay deposited by 
temporary sheets of water. These fine sediments are on most of the 
playas impregnated with or overlain by soluble salts. Under them 
no doubt lie stratified beds deposited by the Pleistocene lakes, but 
these beds are not exposed. Surrounding the principal flats and in 
some places extending across them are shore gravels deposited by the 
waves and currents of the ancient lakes to the maximum depths of at 
least 50 feet. In certain localities there are irregular deposits of sand 
formed by the wind. In a few places calcareous deposits, probably 
reaching a maximum thickness of 50 feet, have been formed by springs. 

The Quaternary deposits average much thicker in the upper than 
in the lower valley. Although no very deep wells have been drilled in 
the upper valley the steepness of the adjacent mountain sides, the 
distinctness of the mountain boundary and the almost complete 
absence of rock outcrops in the vaUey indicate that the fiU is deep. 
Comparison with similar vaUeys in which deep weUs have been sunk 
leads to the inference that except near the mountains the fill is at 
least several hundred feet deep. In the lower valley the mountain 
boundary is less definite and rock outcrops are numerous in the 
valley areas. The fill is generally thin on the slope southeast of 
San Antonio, on the upper parts of the slopes adjacent to the San 
Antonio and Monte Cristo ranges, and in the southwest corner of 
the valley. The absence of rock outcrops in the lower parts of the 
slopes and on the flat, however, together with the data obtained in 
regard to several wells, indicates that, except near the southwest 
end, the fiU in the axial region of the lower vaUey is generally a few 
hundred feet thick. 

In character the stream deposits are directly related to the rocks 
from which they are derived. The slates weather into hard, black, 
angular fragments that are not readily rounded but yield clayey mate- 
rial when abraded. The Hmestones form abundant black pebbles 
that are rather resistant to weathering, but by abrasion and solution 



94 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

yield fine sediments and also calcium carbonate, by means of which 
the deposits become more or less cemented. The granitic rocks form 
arkosic gravel and quartz sand, but only small amounts of clay. The 
rhyolite and associated volcanic rocks, which are disintegrated chiefly 
by changes in temperature and frost, yield arkosic gravel and grit 
with only small amounts of clay and true sand. The tuffs, which 
consist largely of minute volcanic fragments that are not firmly 
cemented, weather readily, producing much fine silt. 

The slate and limestone waste predominates on the Kingston fan 
and adjacent tracts and on the Manhattan fan and adjacent tracts 
and is abundant on the slope adjoining the northern half of the 
Toquima Range and most of the slope adjoining the Toyabe Range 
south of the Kingston fan. It forms only a small part of the waste 
in the lower valley. 

Quartz sand derived from granite predominates in the axial part 
of the vaVey between Charnock Springs and Round Mountain, and 
granitic gravel is abundant on the upper part of the slope in this 
region. Granitic gravel and sand are also abundant on most of the 
slope south of Bowman's ranch and occupy almost aU of the steep 
slope adjacent to Lone Mountain. 

Grit derived from the Tertiary lavas is abundant and widely dis- 
tributed. It is supplied in great quantities by the southern part of 
the Toyabe and Shoshone ranges, the San Antonio Range and the 
hills north of the Monte Cristo Range. 

Fine light-colored silt that contains enough clay to bake hard 
when dry is a characteristic deposit of the axial parts of Big Smoky 
Valley and is especially abundant in the lower valley, where mosi of 
the tuff, from which it is chiefly derived, is found. 

PRECIPITATION. 

Careful and continuous observations of precipitation have been 
made at two places in the drainage basm of Big Smoky Valley in 
recent years — at Tonopah, where the record is complete since August, 
1906, and where the United States Weather Bureau has ui recent 
years maintained a station, and at the Jones ranch, less than 3 miles 
south of Millett, where observations have been made by Fred. J. 
Jones since September, 1907. 

Average monthly and annual precipitation (in inches) at stations in Big Smoky Valley, Nev. 
[From records of United States Weather Bureau.] 



An- 
nual. 





Length 
of rec- 
ord. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Millett 

Tonopah 


Years. 
6 

7 


0.90 
.54 


0.54 

.54 


0.51 

.59 


0.46 
.34 


0.53 
.30 


0.24 
.24 


0.87 
.59 


0.47 
.53 


0.80 
.60 


0.51 
.44 


0.31 
.55 


0.41 
.43 



GEOUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 95 

The summer precipitation generally comes in the form of violent 
local thunder storms produced toward the close of hot days. The 
precipitation during the winter and early in the spring is less local 
and accompanies regional storms of longer duration. It forms a 
larger proportion of the total precipitation in the high mountains 
than in the valley. 

GROUND-WATER INTAKE. 

The ground water that lies under Big Smoky Valley is derived from 
the rain and snow that fall on the drainage basin. On the whole 
the percolation into the bedrock is unimportant, and except in a few 
fissures and solution channels the circulation through these forma- 
tions is very sluggish. They are effectively water-tight and hold in 
the basin most of the water that falls upon it. The main body of 
ground water is in the valley fill. 

Contributions to the water in the valley fill are made by (1) the 
permanent streams that flow out of the larger canyons, (2) the floods 
discharged at long intervals from the canyons which are normally 
dry, (3) the underflow of some of the canyons, (4) the raiji that falls 
in the valley, and (5) a small amount of water discharged underground 
from openings in the rocks. 

Contributions hy permanent streams. — Nearly fifty of the canyons 
that drain into the upper valley have small permanent streams, all 
of which are in the Toyabe Range except five or six in the Toquima 
Range. The largest streams are Kingston Creek and the Twin 
Rivers, both of which are in the Toyabe Range. North of Kingston 
Creek are Santa Fe and Birch creeks and about ten smaller streams; 
between Kingston Creek and the Twin Rivers there are about eight- 
een small permanent streams, and south of the Twin Rivers there 
are eight or ten permanent streams. In the Toquima Range are 
North Moore, South Moore, Barker, Willow, Jefferson, and Shoshone 
creeks. The lower valley receives no streams except Peavine, Cotton- 
wood, and Cloverdale creeks, which rise in the southern parts of the 
Toyabe and Shoshone ranges. 

The streams are fed by mountain springs and also directly by rain 
and melting snow. Most of the springs have shallow sources, their 
supply being merely the seepage from the disintegrated rock near the 
surface. The streams are largest in the spring, when the snow melts 
and when there is also considerable rain in the mountains. By the 
end of June the snow has nearly all disappeared. Ija the succeeding 
months the evaporation is great and consequently the streams shrink 
rapidly. Heavy storms in midsummer occasionally swell the streams 
but do not contribute much to their permanent flow. 

All the streams lose heavily where they flow over the alluvial slopes, 
and most of the water that is lost becomes a part of the underground 



96 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 191G. 

supply. According to estimates based on stream measurements, ten 
creeks, including Birch, Santa Fe, Kingston, and Carsley creeks, were 
in September and October, 1914, contributing to the ground-water 
supply at the rate of about 7,000 acre-feet a year. 

Contributions hj floods from dry canyons. — All the canyons occasion- 
ally carry water in large amounts, the evidences of which may remain 
long after the floods have passed. Some of the floods involve large 
quantities of water and produce impressive results, but they occur 
so rarely that the average annual flood discharge is likely to be over- 
estimated. In the south basin the floods that head in the mountains 
no doubt make larger contributions to the ground water than the 
permanent streams, but in the north basin the flood contributions 
are of less relative importance. 

Contributions by underflow. — Since the canyons were cut they have 
been partly filled with porous rock waste through which water can 
percolate freely. Hence not all the water discharged by a canyon 
flows at the surface; a part flows underground and joins the main 
body of ground water without coming to view. 

The existence of an underflow is demonstrated in many places 
where, owing to some underground obstruction, the water is com- 
pelled to return to the surface, producing swampy areas or sudden 
increases in the stream flow, as in Willow, Peavine, and Cloverdale 
canyons and at the mouth of lone Valley. 

Many of the smaller canyons have no permanent underflow, and 
wells sunk in them would find no water. But even these, if they 
contain detrital deposits, must at certain times conduct considerable 
amounts of rain and snow water underground. The underflow is 
contributed to the main body of ground water with almost no loss, 
whereas only a part — often a very small part — of surface streams 
reaches the underground reservoir. 

Contributions by precipitation in the valley. — The precipitation of 
hght showers in the valley is absorbed by the capillary pores of the 
soil and does not make contributions to the underground supply, 
but the heavier rains produce streams or sheets of water which enters 
the earth wherever the soil is porous or fissured and which is thus 
added to the underground supply. If only 5 per cent of the pre- 
cipitation in the valley areas joins the ground water the contribu- 
tion from this source amounts to nearly 10,000 acre-feet a year in 
both the north and the south basin. 

GROUND-WATER DISCHARGE. 

Processes. — The contributions of water to the underground reser- 
voirs are balanced by losses from these reservoirs. The losses occur 
chiefly through the return of the ground water to the surface but in 
small part through percolation out of the basin by way of underground 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 97 

passages. The return water reaches the surface by flowing from 
springs or by rising through the capillary pores of the soil or the roots 
and stems of plants. It is all eventually disposed of by evaporation. 
The principal groups of springs and the areas of discharge from soil 
and vegetation are shown in Plates VI and VII. The principal 
leakage out of the basin is believed to occur at the west end of the 
south basin. 

Dischargefrom springs. — The main west-side spring line of the upper 
vaUey extends, with a sinuous course due to the different sizes of the 
alluvial fans, from the Vigus ranch to Wood's ranch, a distance of more 
than 30 miles, and includes innumerable springs that discharge a part 
of the copious underground supply received from the Toyabe Range. 
On the east side of the upper vaUey there is no spring line comparable 
to that on the west side, probably because the supply from the 
Toquima Range is smaller than that from the Toyabe Range, but 
numerous springs similar to those on the west side are found for a dis- 
tance of 3 miles in the vicinity of the Charnock ranch, and a group 
of hot springs is situated on the east side near the north end of the 
vaUey. On the alluvial slope between the main west-side spring Hne 
and the mountains a few springs flow from fault scarps and were ap- 
parently produced by impounding through dislocation of the vaUeyfiU. 

The lower vaUey, whose ground-water contributions are smaller and 
less concentrated than those of the upper valley, has no spring line 
except such as is formed by a few water holes a short distance west 
of Millers. At San Antonio and the constricted outlet of lone VaUey 
springs are produced apparently by barriers that bring the water to 
the surface. 

Dischargefrom soil and plants. — The areas in which discharge from 
soil or plants is taking place can be determined by observing (1) the 
moisture conditions of the soil and the position of the water table, (2) 
the appearance of soluble salts at the surface and the distribution 
of these salts in the soil, and (3) the distribution of certain plant 
species that feed on ground water. 

In the areas of discharge the water table is generally within 10 feet 
of the surface and the ground is moist from the water table practically 
to the surface. Moreover, the salts that are dissolved in the water 
and are deposited on evaporation are generally found at or near the 
surface. 

The principal plant indicators of shallow ground water and ground- 
water discharge in the mountain areas are the birch trees and willows; 
the principal indicators in the valley are salt grass (DisticTilis spicata),^ 
samphire (Spirostachys occidentalis) , buff alo-berry bush (Shepherdia), 
giant reed grass (PJiragmites communis), and rabbit bush (CJiryso- 

1 The plant species mentioned above were, with a few exceptions, identified by Dr. P. B. Kennedy, 
botanist, Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, but he is not responsible for the field interpretations. 



98 CONTEIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

thamnus graveolens). Certain wild grasses used for hay or pasture 
also discharge ground water. 

The big greasewood (Sarcohatus vermiculatus) is abundant in the 
shallow-water areas and in areas with moderate depths to water, 
where it no doubt receives a part of its supply from the main body of 
ground water, but it is not confined to these areas. The iodine 
weed (Suseda torreyana) grows in alkaline soil and is generally found 
where more than an ordinary supply of moisture is available, but in 
Big Smoky VaUey it appears not to be a reliable indicator of shallow 
ground water, as it occurs in localities that are far above the water 
table. The tall shrubby salt bush {Atriplex torreyi) is not common in 
Big Smoky Valley, but grows here and there. It can endure con- 
siderable alkali and is generally found in low places with more than 
an ordinary supply of moisture, but it is not a reliable indicator of 
shallow water. Common sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is found 
chiefly near the bases of the alluvial slopes and along stream courses, 
where there are better supplies of moisture from flood waters than 
on the higher parts of the slopes and where the soil does not contain 
excessive amounts of alkali. It occupies some of the land that is 
most promising for agriculture. So far as known, sagebrush does 
not utilize water derived from the zone of saturation. It is not an 
indicator of shallow ground water. 

The spiny salt bush (Atriplex confertifolia), often caUed shadscale, 
and the little, dry species of greasewood (Sarcohatus haileyi) are com- 
monly associated and are the dominant plants on the dry slopes 
and plains that lie far above the water table. White sage, or winter 
fat (Eurotia lanata), also grows on the upland plains far above the 
water table. 

The interior of large playas, such as the Millett and McLeans flats, 
are entirely barren over extensive areas. Barrenness is, however, 
not an indication of ground-water discharge, for it is as characteristic 
of some of the flats having considerable depths to water as of those 
having shallow water. 

The largest area of ground-water discharge is in the interior of the 
upper valley. (See PL VI.) It extends a distance of 40 miles, attains 
a maximum width of more than 8 miles, and covers about 160 square 
miles, or 100,000 acres. Its northern extremity is only a few miles 
south of the Spencer Hot Springs and its southern extremity is in the 
vicinity of Wood's ranch. In all of this area the process of ground- 
water evaporation is uninterrupted except where the large beach ridges 
cross the axis of the valley. The northern and southern limits of the 
area are somewhat indefinite, owing to the very gradual increase in 
the depth to water along the axis of the vaUey. 

The principal area of ground-water discharge in the lower vaUey 
extends from a point about 2 J miles southwest of Millers to a line 



GROUND WATEE IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 99 

just west of the Silver Peak Railroad. (See PI. VII:) It is about 17 
miles long, has a maximum width of 5 miles, and covers about 45 
square miles, or nearly 30,000 acres. The northeastern limits of this 
area are indefinite because the increase in the depth to water in this 
direction is very gradual. 

Quantities discJiarged. — By applying the results obtained by Lee ^ 
on the rate of discharge in the Independence district of Owens Valley, 
Cal., to the conditions in Big Smoky Valley, the conclusion is reached 
that the average annual loss of ground water from the area of dis- 
charge in the upper valley is probably not less than one-half foot nor 
more than 1 foot — in other words, that the amount of water dis- 
charged from the main body of ground water in the upper valley is 
between 50,000 and 100,000 acre-feet a year, or between about 8 and 
17 per cent of the precipitation in the north basin. These quantities 
are of the same order of magnitude as those derived from a study 
of the contributions to the underground supply (p. 96). It is esti- 
mated, on the basis of relative areas of discharge, that about 26 
per cent of the discharge occurs north of the large embankment that 
crosses the valley just south of the Daniels ranch, about 57 per cent 
between this embankment and the one that crosses the valley south- 
east of the Rogers ranch, and about 17 per cent in the area still 
farther south. (See PI. VI.) 

In the lower valley the average temperature is considerably higher 
than in the upper valley, and over about one-third of the area of 
discharge, chiefly in the locality between Millers Pond and the Desert 
well, the porous soil and the slight depth to the water table indicate 
heavy loss of ground water, but over the clayey parts of the barren 
tract, which occupies about 7,000 acres, and over much of the western 
part of the area, even where there is some vegetation, the discharge 
is small and in some places practically negligible. The data at hand 
appear to indicate that the aggregate amount of ground water dis- 
charged from the lower valley is between about 10,000 and 30,000 
acre-feet a year, or between about 2 and 5 per cent of the precipita- 
tion on the south basin. 

It should be remembered that the estimates of both contributions 
and discharge are based on inadequate data, that only a part of the 
annual supply can be recovered through wells, and that unless the 
weUs are widely distributed the recoverable part will form only a 
small proportion of the total supply. It should also be remembered 
that the estimates are less reliable for the lower than for the upper 
valley. Even for the upper valley it would not be wise to plan an, 
initial project involving more than a few thousand acre-feet of ground 
water a year. 

1 Lee, C. H., An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley, Cal.: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-supply Paper 294, 1912. 

93729°— 15 3 



100 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 
WATER LEVELS. 

Over an area of 160 square miles in the upper valley and an area 
of 45 square miles in the lower valley the water table, or upper surface 
of the main body of ground water, is generally within 10 feet of the 
surface of the ground. These shallow-water areas practically coin- 
cide with the areas of ground-water discharge, already referred to 
(p. 98), and are sho^vn on Plates VI and VII. The outlines of these 
shallow-water areas were determined partly by examining wells and 
boring holes to the water table, but more largely by interpreting 
surface indications of shallow water afforded by the moisture in the 
soil, the soluble salts at the surface, and certain species of native 
plants (pp. 97, 98). 

On all sides of each of the shallow-water areas, with possibly some 
local exceptions, the water table rises gradually in the direction of 
the mountains. In some places on the west side of the large flats in 
the upper valley it rises at about the same angle as the surface of the 
ground, and hence is within 10 feet of the surface at points more than 
100 feet above the flats. In general, however, the slope of the water 
table is much less than that of the land surface. The lines on Plates 
VI and VII, showing depths to water of 50 and 100 feet, respec- 
tively, are based on determinations, from the topographic map and 
by the use of the hand level, of the slope of the land surface, and on 
reasonable assumptions as to the slope of the water table. In the 
lower vaUey there are several comparatively deep wells that give 
some control of the 50 and 100 foot Hues, but in the upper val- 
ley there are no wells in which the water level is more than 20 feet 
below the surface. Although the lines showing depth to water are 
only forecasts and wiU, without doubt, be found to be considerably 
in error in some localities, they are beheved nevertheless to be of 
value in directing developments. 

According to the data and forecasts shown on Plates VI and VII, 
the areas with specified depths to water are as shown in the following 
table: 

Estimated areas having specified depths to water table in Big Smohy Valley, Nev. 



Depth to water table, in feet. 


North basin 
(upper val- 


South basin 

(lower val- 

ley). 


Total. 


Total areas: 

Less than 10 (alkali land) 


Acres. 
100,000 
170.000 
215, 000 

70,000 
115,000 

45,000 


Acres. 
30,000 
70,000 
120,000 

40,000 
90,000 

20,000 


Acres. 
130,000 




240,000 


Less than 100 ' 


335, 000 


Areas exclusive of alkali land: 

Less than 50 


110,000 


Less than 100 . . 


205,000 


Areas exclusive of alkali, gravelly, and sandy land: 


65,000 







GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 101 

WATER-BEARING CAPACITIES. 

The coarse, clean sediments derived from granite are porous and 
yield water freely. The arkosic grit derived from rhyolite a ad other 
igneous rocks of fine grain also generally yields water freely, but it 
contains more fine material, and when it disintegrates it becomes 
compact. The pebbles derived from the angular fragments resulting 
from the weathering of slate and limestone may produce porous 
deposits, but the pores are likely to be sealed to some extent by the 
cementation effected by calcium carboaate. The sediments derived 
from the tuffs are largely fine silt and form dense deposits that will 
yield Httle water. The sediments derived from the other stratified 
Tertiary rocks are also in general unpromising as water producers. 

In the upper valley there are no wells that have been pumped at a 
rate of more than a few gallons a minute, but it is probable that in 
most places betweeji the 100-foot line (PI. VI) and the alkali area 
weUs yielding moderately large supplies can be obtained. In the 
areas adjacent to mountains in which limestone and slate predomi- 
nate, as between Birch and Carsley creeks, the yields may average 
less than in the areas of granitic sediments, but there is no reason to 
believe that even in these areas wells will be failures. The most 
valuable water suppUes will probably be found within the first few 
hundred feet of the surface, but it would be desirable to sink several 
wells to considerable depths to test possible deep-seated artesian 
horizons. 

In the lower valley the conditions are less promising than in the 
upper valley because the fill is shallower and contains more sediments 
derived from tuffs and less derived from granite. However, there is 
evidence that in that part of the area having less than 50 feet to 
water which lies northeast of the alkali area (PL VII), the fill is deep 
enough to form a dependable ground-water reservoir. The availa- 
ble data as to the yields of the wells in the area northeast of the 
alkali area are also rather favorable. In a test of 2 hours and 40 
minutes made September 1, 1913, the well of the Desert Power & 
Mill Co. at Millers, which is 6 by 12 feet in cross section and about 
63 feet deep, yielded at the rate of 400 gallons a minute with a draw- 
down of 17 feet. The well is pumped nearly half of the time and is 
reported to have supplied as much as 5,000,000 gallons a month. 
The well of the Belmont Milling & Development Co., situated a short 
distance west of the Desert Power & Mill Co.'s well, is 6 by 12 feet 
in cross section and about 50 feet deep. With 12 feet of drawdown 
it yields about 140 gallons a minute. 

In the southwestern part of the lower valley the ground-water 
prospects are unfavorable in several respects. The Tertiary forma- 
tions appear to be near the surface, and wells with large yields can. 



102 COXTEIBUTIOXS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

probably not be obtained. There is a possibility of obtaining supplies 
by drilling into the Tertiary strata, but the prospect is too poor to 
make deep drilling advisable, at least until the more promising sup- 
plies from the Quaternary fill in other parts of the valley have been 

developed. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

In the last two years seven flowing wells have been sunk in the 
upper valley and drilling was in progress when the valley was last 
visited. These wells are all in or very near the area of ground-water 
discharge, which has more or less alkaline soil and a depth to water 
not generally exceeding 10 feet (PI. VI). The most successful one 
is the 127-foot well of Fred. Jones (PL VI), which is 6 inches in diame- 
ter and is finished with standard casing without perforations, the 
water entering through the open end at the bottom of the well. The 
first flow was struck at a depth of 68 feet, and a stronger flow was 
struck at 117 feet in a 10-foot bed of gravel below a layer of dense 
clay. The flow when measured on October 7, 1914, was 120 gallons 
a minute. The cost was $221, including the casing. As shown in 
the table on page 114, the other wells have depths ranging from 40 to 
133 feet and yields ranging from 10 to 40 gallons a minute. 

The prospects of obtaining flowing wells are, as a rule, best where 
the water table is nearest the surface, and no money should be spent 
in drilling for flows outside of the 50-foot boundaries shown on Plates 
VI and VII. The most favorable conditions are found in the shallow- 
water area on the west side of the upper valley, where the slope from 
the mountains is steep and the water supply is abundant, but there 
are also prospects on the east side between the Charnock springs and 
Wood's ranch. To a large extent the flowing-well area will be found 
to be in the areas of alkali soil, but it may be possible to get satisfac- 
tory flows on some good land just outside of the alkali areas, espe- 
cially at the bases of the alluvial fans of Kingston Creek, Twin Rivers, 
and Jefferson Creek. Even where the soil contains considerable 
alkali flowing v^ells will be profitable provided there is enough slope 
to make the removal of the alkali practicable, as is the case near the 
west edge of the alkali area in the upper valley, and provided the 
yield of the wells is large enough to make the cost per acre compara- 
tively small, as is the case with the Jones well. 

The conditions for obtaining flowing weUs in the lower valley are 
believed to be less favorable than in the upper valley because the fill 
is not so deep, the contributions to the ground-water supply are 
smaller, and the principal sources of supply are farther from the 
shallow-water area. If any drilling for flowing wells is undertaken 
in the lower valley it should be done a short distance west of Millers, 
where the soil is fairly good but the water table is not much more 
than 10 feet below the surface. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY^ NEV. 103 

Flows could probably be obtained by drilling deep wells into the 
Tertiary strata in the lowest parts of the lower valley, but on account 
of the probable small yields and poor quality of water it is not likely 
that such wells would be worth what they would cost. 

Waste of artesian water decreases the supply and, by reducing the 
yield of wells, increases the cost per second-foot of the water recovered 
and the cost per acre of land reclaimed with this water. This higher 
cost is borne in part by the man who wastes the water and in part by 
his neighbors. Great stupidity has been shown by the inhabitants 
of most flowing-well areas in their reckless disregard of obvious prin- 
ciples of water conservation, and it is partly for this reason that most 
artesian basins have proved disappointing. It is to be hoped that in 
the developments hi Big Smoky Valley more wisdom will be exer- 
cised, and that the waste of the artesian water will be prevented by 
using good casing, by inserting the casing tightly through the confin- 
ing beds, and by closing the wells when the water is not used, 

DRILLING METHODS. 

Drilling can be done with cable percussion rigs,^ mud-sc^w outfits 
such as are used in many of the debris-filled valleys of California,^ or 
hydraulic rigs of either rotary ^ or spudding '^ type. 

Cable percussion rigs are the most reliable for general exploratory 
work and should be used for drilling in hard formations, such as the 
Tertiary rocks, or in bowldery deposits, such as underlie the fan 
slopes in some localities. These rigs, however, are comparatively 
slow in operation and are not well adapted for penetrating quicksand. 
They will not lend themselves to the most economic development 
of the ground waters of the valley. 

Mud scows, which are essentially bailers with heavy cutting shoes 
at the bottom, have been very widely and successfully used for drilling 
pump wells of large diameter in ordinary valley fill to obtain water 
for irrigation and they would no doubt be well adapted for similar 
use in Big Smoky Valley. They might, however, not be successful 
where much quicksand is encountered. 

Hydraulic outfits, in which water is pumped downward through 
hollow drill rods and comes up on the outside, bringing the drillings 
with it, provide a rapid means of sinking wells in soft, fine-grained 
material. The rotary machines are necessarily heavy and somewhat 
expensive and are used in deep drilling. In machines of the other 
type, usually provided with expansion cutting driUs, the driU rods 
are alternately lifted and allowed to drop, as in percussion rigs. 
These light, inexpensive machines are used to a considerable extent 

1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, pp. 34-59, 1911. 

2 Idem, pp. 66-70. 
» Idem, pp. 70-75. 
* Idem, pp. 75-78. 



104 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

for drilling flowing wells in fine valley fill and they are well adapted 
for similar use in Big Smoky Valley. The wells drilled with these 
outfits are generally small, but there appears to be no reason why they 
could not be used successfully for holes 6 inches in diameter, which 
is the smallest diameter recommended for wells to be used for irri- 
gation. The ascending muddy water plasters the walls of the well, 
producing a remarkably effective mud casing. Even in a deep well 
in soft material it is generally not necessary to insert casing until 
the entire hole has been drilled. This plastering or puddling process 
makes the hydraulic rigs the most successful for penetrating quick- 
sand, but it involves the danger of shutting out valuable water- 
bearing beds. 

The most serious difficulty that has been met in drilling in Big 
Smoky Valley is produced by beds of quicksand, which are always 
hard to handle. If the bed of sand is not too thick it may be possible 
to drive the casing through it into a firmer formation, or if the sand 
does not run too freely it may be possible to bail out enough so that 
the casing can be driven down little by little. Entrance of sand into 
the well can to some extent be prevented by keeping the well as full 
of water as possible, thereby producing a back pressure. Other 
methods of penetrating quicksand consist of (1) freezing the for- 
mation, which is too expensive for ordinary water wells, (2) insert- 
ing cement, which sinks into the quicksand and sets, after which it 
can be drilled through, and (3) puddling with mud by the hydraulic 
process. The puddling method is the most practicable for use in 
Big Smoky Valley. 

For pump wells of large diameter double stovepipe casing, about 
No. 12 gage, such as is widely used in California, is probably the 
most economical casing that is adequate. It is commonly used in 
weUs sunk with mud scows, where it is inserted as fast as the hole is 
made. In flowing weUs it is advisable to use the somewhat more 
expensive standard screw casing. Wells in the vaUey fill should 
not be left uncased. In pump weUs the casing should be perforated 
at every satisfactory water-bearing bed, either before or after it is 
inserted. Flowing weUs, in order to yield the largest amounts pos- 
sible, should be sunk through the entire bed that furnishes the artesian 
water and should have their casings perforated where they pass 
through this bed. Generally there are several satisfactory artesian 
beds below the one in which the first flow is struck, and in order to 
get strong flows aU of them should be penetrated and the artesian 
water admitted by perforating the casing. Perforations may be 
circular holes one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter or vertical slits 
one-fqurth to one-half inch wide. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 105 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

Analyses were made by Dr. S. C. Dinsmore of the waters from 
nearly all the wells, from a number of springs and streams, and from 
a few test borings ; also of the alkali in a number of typical soil samples. 
All these analyses will be published in the final report. They indicate 
that the waters in the upper valley, with few exceptions, contain 
only small amounts of mineral matter and are of good quality for 
irrigation; that the waters of that part of the lower valley northeast 
of the area of alkali soil (PI. VII) contain larger amounts of mineral 
matter but are also in general good enough for irrigation, and that 
the waters of the southwestern part of the lower valley contain large 
amoimts of mineral matter and are in general of poor quality or 
entirely unfit for irrigation. 

Of the 18 samples of spring and well waters from the upper valley 
analyzed, seven contained less than 200 parts per million of total 
dissolved solids and only two contained more than 500 parts per 
miUion. The dissolved solids consist chiefly of calcium and the 
bicarbonate radicle. The soil analyses show that the two most 
injurious salts in the soil of the alkali area in the upper vaUey are 
sodium chloride and sodium carbonate, the chloride being the more 
abundant but the carbonate the more injurious. Within the alkali 
area, as shown on the map (PI. VI), difficulty with these two salts 
may be expected, but not all the land within the area is irreclaimable. 
Indeed, a large part of the land now under irrigation with stream and 
spring waters lies in the alkali area and has been made fairly produc- 
tive by persistent and intelligent effort. Except where the soil is 
already alkaline no serious alkali problem will be developed by 
irrigating with ground water in the upper valley. 

Although the waters from the northeastern part of the lower valley 
(that is, the part northeast of the area of alkali soil) contain some- 
what larger amounts of total dissolved solids than the ground waters 
of the upper valley they do not generally contain as much as 500 
parts per million. They have slightly less calcium than the waters of 
the upper valley but considerably more sodium and somewhat more 
chlorine and sulphate. The quantities of all the sodium salts in the 
waters of the northeast province are, however, so rnoderate that 
these waters are believed to be generally satisfactory for irrigation 
except where the soil already contains injurious amounts of alkali. 
The boundary of the area of alkali soil is shown in Plate VII, but on 
the northeast the limits are not definite and some alkali may be 
encountered beyond the boundary sho^vn on the map. Reclamation 
of the land in the alkali area is not believed to be practicable, the 
drainage being much poorer than that of the reclaimed alkali land in 
the upper valley. 



106 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 
IRRIGATION. 
DEVELOPMENTS. 

The acreage of irrigated land in the basin of Big Smoky Valley is 
difficult to estimate because many of the irrigated fields merge with 
partly irrigated or nonirrigated meadows, and these in turn merge 
with unproductive marsh or desert. According to estimates based on 
the measured or reported dimensions of fields at each ranch, the total 
area regularly irrigated in the basin is about 2,500 acres, of which 
about one-half is in alfaKa and one-half in wild grass, the acreage of 
all other crops being very small. In addition there is about 5,000 
acres of meadow land that is occasionally flooded or naturally sub- 
irrigated and that ranges from fairly productive grass land to nearly 
worthless salt-grass marsh. Practically all the irrigated land is in 
the north basin except about 300 acres along Peavine and Cloverdale 
Creeks. 

Most of the water used in irrigation is obtained from the numerous 
small mountain streams, but a part comes from valley springs along 
the western spring line and at the Charnock ranch. Less than 5 acres 
was irrigated with water from wells in 1913 and 1914. Most of the 
stream water is used on land near the mouths of the canyons or in 
open places within the canyons, but a part is led in ditches down the 
fan slopes and is used in the alkali area (PI. VI) or on intermediate 
tracts. The meadow land and nearly all the land irrigated from 
springs lie within the alkali area, but the alkali has been largely 
removed from the best fields in this area. The tracts of good soil 
adjacent to the alkali area generally lie above the springs, but they 
could be more largely utilized than they are at present for irrigation 
with stream waters. 

There is great loss of stream water by seepage into the porous 
sediments underlying the upper parts of the fan slopes. Where the 
water is used on the porous soil near the canyons the loss occurs 
largely by seepage after it has been applied to the land; where it is 
used on the tighter soil at lower levels the loss occurs chiefly by seepage 
from the ditches that lead from the mouths of the canyons to the 
irrigated fields several miles distant. The arroyos leading from the 
canyons generally have very porous soil, and to some extent loss has 
been avoided by using the water on the uplands adjacent to the 
arroyos instead of using it on the floors of the arroyos themselves, 
or by leading it through ditches on the upland rather than taking it 
down the natural streamways. Only a part of the loss, is, however, 
prevented by these means. The only effective methods of conserving 
the water supply would be (1) to prevent excessive seepage by con- 
structing water-tight ditches from the canyons to the tracts of satis- 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 107 

factory soil, or (2) to recover the water after seepage has taken place 
tlirough wells ui the shallow-water areas. Both methods involve 
heavy expenditures, but both will probably in time be used. 

An experiment in waterproof ditch construction has been made 
by Frank Gendron, who lined with stone a ditch about 2 miles long 
leading from Decker Canyon to his ranch. Although no cement was 
used the ditch is practically watertight, as is shown by the absence 
along its margins of moisture or of vegetation other than the ordinary 
desert brush. The ditch is reported by the owner to have cost about 
$4,000, all in labor, and on October 3, 1914, it was carrying only 0.64 
second-foot of water. These figures suggest a high cost per unit of 
water developed, but it must be remembered that the flow is much 
less in October than in most of the irrigation season, and that without 
the lined ditch probably none of the supply would have reached the 
ranch in the later part of the season. 

It is beUeved that improvement of ditches to prevent seepage is 
practicable in other places in the valley, but before any work is 
undertaken the bulletuis on the subject of ditch construction prepared 
by the Department of Agriculture should be consulted and all neces- 
sary information should be obtained in order to procure the best 
possible results at the lowest possible cost. In some places it may be 
advisable to construct water-tight ditches only on the parts of the 
slopes that have the largest seepage losses. The installation of pres- 
sure pipe, which would not only conserve the water but would also 
develop power that could be used for pumping, is worthy of con- 
sideration, although its cost wiU no doubt in most cases be found 
to be prohibitive. Its use may be found economically feasible on 
the steep, porous upper parts of the slopes though not on the lower 
parts having less gradient and less seepage. 

The duty of the water is also diminished by the great seasonal 
fluctuation of the streams. The smaUest streams have their maxi- 
mum flow in April, begm to dwindle in May, and fail to reach the 
fields before the summer is far advanced. Not only is their water 
totally lost during most of the summer, but the season in which a 
part of it reaches the fields is so brief that it is impossible to make 
good use of even this small supply. The larger streams reach their 
maxima later and maintain considerable flow throughout the irriga- 
tion season, but their seasonal fluctuations are also so great that the 
water in the high stages can not be utihzed to good advantage. The 
construction of reservoirs to regulate the flow is probably impracti- 
cable for most of the streams, but no investigation of reservoir sites 
has been made. The development of supplementary supplies by 
pumping from wells has more promise of being economically feasible. 



108 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 
CROPS AND MARKETS. 

The short seasons, with cold springs and autumns, place a severe 
limit on the kind and quantity of crops that can be raised here, 
although this is less true of the vicinity of Millers than of the upper 
valley, where irrigation is now practiced. The isolation of the region 
places limitations on the kinds of crops that can be produced profit- 
ably. The local mining towns afford a market for hay, meat, vege- 
tables, fruit, butter, and eggs, but this market is uncertain and easily 
glutted. It is of distinct benefit to the present ranchers, especially in 
keeping up the price of hay, but it can not be depended on to support 
new settlers or to make costly water-supply developments profitable. 

The most valuable staple crop now raised is alfalfa, which is cut 
only two or three times in the season and probably has an average 
annual yield of not more than 3 tons an acre. At present alfalfa 
brings the hirgest returns when sold at the local mining towns, but 
the permanent value of this crop depends on what it is worth when 
fed to live stock. The cattle in the region depend largely on the 
range, even in the winter, but the most thrifty ranchers appreciate 
the value of a reserve supply of hay to supplement the range, espe- 
cially in severe winters. Alfalfa requires a large amount of water, 
and some dependable crops could perhaps be found that would yield 
greater returns for the quantities of water used. 

Utilization of the water supplies now going to w^aste would involve 
heavy costs and is practicable only to the extent that the developed 
water can do a large duty measured in financial returns. This 
requires crops of as high value as possible for the amount of water 
that they consume, cultural methods that will be as sparing as 
possible of the water supply, and arrangements by which the de- 
veloped water can do extra duty in supplementing existing irrigation 
supplies. Much can no doubt be accomplished along these lines if 
systematic experimentation is undertaken by the State experiment 
station 

IRRIGATION FROM WELLS. 

WELLS. 

Irrigation can be accomplished with water from flowing wells and 
with water pumped from nonflowing weUs. Where flowing wells 
are used the expenditures for the wells and for reservoirs adequate to 
hold the supplies of about one day are practicaUy the only items of 
cost that are chargeable to the water supply; where pumped weUs are 
used the cost of the water includes not only the expenditure for the 
wells but also the cost of the pumps, engines, or other sources of 
power, and necessary equipment, together with the operating ex- 
penses, which include fuel, lubricating oil, attendance, and repairs. 
However, in most valleys similar to Big Smoky Valley that have been 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 109 

thoroughly tested flowing wells are obtained only in restricted areas, 
often where the soil is poor, and their yields are relatively small; 
hence extensive developments are likely to require the installation of 
pumping plants. 

Flowing wells are preferably finished with standard screw casing, 
6 to 8 inches in diameter. Where flows are not expected the double 
stovepipe casing is adequate and somewhat less expensive and can be 
used in sizes ranging from 8 to 12 inches in diameter. The depths to 
which it is advisable to sink irrigation weUs differ with different 
localities and range from less than 100 feet to several hundred feet. 
In some localities a given quantity of water is developed at the 
lowest cost by sinking one rather deep weU; in others the same 
quantity is developed at the lowest cost by sinking two or more 
shallow wells. If, however, two or more wells are sunk in the same 
locality they should for the sake of economy in operation be connected, 
if practicable, with the same pump. Great pains should be taken to 
develop the largest possible yield from every well by having the 
casing perforated at every satisfactory water-bearing bed with as 
many and as large perforations as is practicable, and by cleaning the 
well thoroughly by heavy pumping in order to remove the fine 
sediments and to produce a gravel strainer around the casing. Large 
yields not only keep down the cost for well construction per unit of 
water developed, but they also, by diminishing the drawdown, keep 
at a minimum the cost of lifting the water. 



Horizontal centrifugal pumps are in general the best pumps for 
lifting irrigation supplies from wells in areas where the water table 
is not far below the surface. As only shallow-water areas are at 
present to be considered for reclamation by means of well water these 
pumps are recommended for use in Big Smoky VaUey. They should 
be set in pits just above the high-water level and should draw from 
the wells by suction. If a pump is not supplied, with this manner of 
installation, by the well from which it draws, additional wells should 
be sunk and fitted with suction pipes that connect with the pump. 
The yield should, if possible, be determined by means of a temporary 
installation before the permanent outfit is bought and installed. 
Yields of at least 100 gallons a minute from a well should be obtained 
in order to have a development that is fairly economical. A single 
well with a capacity of 100 gallons can be pumped with a small 
centrifugal pump for the irrigation of 10 to 15 acres, but the cost per 
acre-foot of water will be less if several such wells are sunk about 50 
feet apart and all are drawn upon by a single pump of larger capacity. 
Of course, if each of a group of five wells yields 100 gallons a minute 
when pumped alone the total yield of all pumped simultaneously wiU, 



110 CONTKIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

on account of mutual interference, aggregate considerably less than 
500 gallons a minute. In some parts of the valley yields of several 
hundred gallons a minute can no doubt be obtained from a single 
properly constructed well. 

The cost of pumping water depends largely on the efficiency of the 
pump and other machinery, and the efficiency depends on numerous 
mechanical details. These are better understood by the mechanic 
than by the farmer, but they must be mastered by every farmer 
who hopes to make a success of pumping for irrigation. They are 
subjects of general application which can not be adequately dis- 
cussed in this paper, but are admirably treated in a booklet by Charles 
A. Norcross.^ Most of the manufacturing firms have in their service 
engineers or expert mechanics who will assist farmers in planning 
installations suited to their particular needs. 



The cost of the power is usually the largest single item in the cost 
of pumped well water. With a given efficiency the amount of 
power necessary to pump an acre-foot of water is directly propor- 
tional to the height to which the water is lifted. When the pump 
is operated the water surface in the well is drawn down from its 
normal level to some lower level, where it usually remains approxi- 
mately stationary while the pump is running, but when the pump 
is stopped the water in the well returns about to its normal level. 
The total lift is the distance from the water level while the pump 
is in operation to the level of the outlet of the discharge pipe; that 
is, it is the depth to the water table plus the drawdown. If the 
depth to the water table is 25 feet and the drawdown with a certam 
rate of pumping is 15 feet, the total lift is 40 feet. 

Possible sources of power that may be considered for irrigation 
pumping in Big Smoky Valley are (1) distillate used in small internal- 
combustion engines installed at the individual pumping plants, 
(2) electric current from commercial power lines, (3) electric current 
produced by a central power plant using crude oil or other fuel 
shipped into the valley, (4) electric current produced by a power 
plant at the coal mines near Blair Junction, and (5) electric current 
produced from local water power. 

The most practical source of power during the experimental 
stage of pumping is the gasoline engine using distillate for fuel. 
The installation should be approximately as shown in figure 18. 
A shelter should be made for the engine and well and they should 
be protected from floods. 

The approximate cost of fuel if distillate is used is shown in the 
following table adapted from the bulletin by Norcross:^ 

1 Irrigation pumping in Nevada: Nevada Bur. Ind., Agr., and Irr. Bull. 8, 1913. 2 idem, p. 37. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 



Ill 



Cost of distillate, at 15 cents a gallon, for pumping, based on 35 per cent efficiency of the 
pump and drive, iviih an engine developing 1 horsepower-hour on one-seventh gallon. 









Annual cost 




DistUlate 




for water for 


Pumping 
lift. 


required to 
pump 1 acre- 
foot of water. 


Cost for 1 

acre-foot of 

water. 


ingadepthof 
irrigation of 

2Heeta 

season. 


Feet. 


Gallons. 






10 


5.6 


$0.84 


S2.10 


20 


11.2 


1.68 


4.20 


30 


16.8 


2.52 


6.30 


40 


22.4 


3.36 


8.40 


nO 


2S.0 


4.20 


10.50 



According to the schedule of rates for industrial power, effective 
March 5, 1914, in the region in which Big Smoky Valley is situated, 




Note: The belt should be run 
at a pitch of not nnore than 
45," to avoid excessive loss 
of power from slipping 



Figure 18. — Diagram of a pumping plant adapted for conditions in Big Smoky Valley, Nev., consisting of 
a horizontal centrifugal pump driven by a gasoline engine. (After C. A. Norcross.) 

the charge for electric current is 3^ cents per kilowatt-hour if less than 
1,000 kilowatt-hours is used in a month, and according to a sliding 
scale with somewhat lower prices if more current is used. The 
efficiency of an electrically driven plant is somewhat greater than 
that of a plant operated by a gasoline engine. The cost of power in 
an electric plant with an efficiency of 40 per cent, including the motor, 
at a charge for current of 3| cents per kilowatt-hour, is almost the 
same as the cost given in the above table for a typical plant using 
distillate at 15 cents a gaUon. An electric plant has an important 
advantage over one driven by a gasoline engine in requiring less 
attention and less skill on the part of the farmer. 



112 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

The line of the Nevada-CaUf ornia Power Co . crosses the area having 
less than 50 feet to water in the lower valley (PL VII) and runs to 
Round Mountain, which is less than 5 miles from the similar area in 
the upper valley (PL VI), but an extension of many miles would be 
required to bring the current to the northern part of the shaUow- 
water area of the upper vaUey. If satisfactory water supplies are 
developed in the vicinity of MiUers and at the south end of the 
shaUow-water area of the upper valley, pumping with electricity 
could first be tried in these two localities, and if the experiment 
proved successful the transmission line could later be extended. 

Crude oil is delivered at Millers in carload lots for about 4 cents 
a gallon. A well-equipped central plant using this fuel and connected 
by electric lines with pumping units could no doubt supply power at 
less cost than the smaU gasoline engines installed at the pumping 
units. Power could probably also be developed at relatively low 
cost if a plant were built at the Coaldale coal deposits, a few miles 
southwest of Blair Junction. These deposits have been described by 
J. H. Hance,^ of the United States Geological Survey, who makes the 
following statement: 

The analyses show that the coal has a high heat value and is bituminous, but this 
desiiable feature is partly offset by a high percentage of ash-making constituents. 
The coal keeps well, slakes very little, and may meet an economical and efficient use 
in the gas producer. By using it as a gas coal, a power plant might be established at 
the mines and the neighboring towns and camps supplied with electric power more 
cheaply than under present conditions. However, it probably will not bear transpor- 
tation charges, such as prevail in this State, and can scarcely hope to have extensive 
use as a domestic fuel. 

No power plant should, however, be constructed until irrigation 
with ground water has passed beyond the experimental stage and a 
supply large enough to justify the necessary expenditure has been 
developed. 

The streams that discharge into the upper valley have steep slopes 
and great head, but the quantities of water they carry are small, 
especially in the later part of the summer. The cost of developing 
water power from these streams for pumping would probably be pro- 
hibitive, but the matter is worthy of investigation. According to 
current-meter measurements made October 1, 1914, Kingston Creek 
flowed 6.68 and 7.21 second-feet at two points 3 J miles apart and 
having a difference of elevation estimated at not less than 800 feet. 
During most of the irrigation season the flow is no doubt considerably 
greater. With an over-aU efficiency of 33 J per cent, the power from 
7i second-feet of water falling 800 feet would lift 50 second-feet of 
well water from a depth of 40 feet. At $3,000 per second-foot the 
value of this amount of water would be $150,000. 

1 The Coaldale coal field, Esmeralda County, Nev.: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 531, p. 322, 1913. 



GROUND WATER IX BIG SMOKY VALLEY, NEV. 113 



The most uncertain item in the initial cost of a pumping plant is 
the cost of the wells, the uncertainty in this item being due to the 
large local variations in the depth and yield of water-bearing beds 
and the impossibility of predicting the depth and yield accurately. 
If a well 100 feet deep yields 450 gallons a minute, and the drilling 
and casing cost $2 a foot, the cost for this item is only $200 per second- 
foot, but if a weU 200 feet deep yields only 100 gallons a minute, the 
cost, at the same rate for drilling and casing, is $1,800 per second-foot. 

If the cost of a pumping plant with a capacity of 1 second-foot is 
$1,200, including wells, pump, engine, and accessories, the interest 
on the investment at 7 per cent amounts to $84 a year, and the depre- 
ciation and repairs, reckoned at 10 per cent of the initial cost, amount 
to $120 a year, making the annual charge for interest, depreciation, 
and repairs amount to $204. If the plant is operated an average of 
15 hours a day for 120 days, it will yield 150 acre-feet during the irri- 
gation season. The charge for interest, depreciation, and repairs wiU 
therefore, on these assumptions, be $1.36 for each acre-foot of water. 
This charge must be added to the cost of operation in order to ascer- 
tain the total cost of the water. 

If the cost for fuel to generate power is as shown in the table on 
page 111 and the total lift is 40 feet, the cost for each acre-foot wiU be 
$3.36 plus $1.36, or a total of $4.72, exclusive of labor, lubricating oil, 
taxes, and the conducting and applying of the water to the fields. 
This is the cost of the water delivered by the pump and does not take 
account of any loss in storage or distribution. On the above assump- 
tions, disregarding loss, the annual cost for power, interest, depreci- 
ation, and repairs will amount to $11.80 an acre if 2 J feet of water is 
applied during the irrigation season. With this duty of water the 
hypothetical plant would irrigate 60 acres at an annual cost for fuel 
of $504. 

If electric current is obtained from the Nevada-California Power 
Co., the cost will be about the same as calculated above. If there is 
poor success with the weUs, if the lift is higher, if more expensive fuel 
is used, if there is a poor installation or unskillful operation of pump 
and engine, if there are frequent breakdowns, or if more water is 
required per acre, the cost will be greater than calculated above. If 
there is very good success with the weUs, if the lift is less, if power is 
produced on a large scale in the most economical manner possible, if 
the efficiency of the plant is by skill and care kept unusually high, or 
if by good methods of irrigation and cultivation or the wise selection 
of crops the duty of the water is increased, the cost per acre may be 
reduced to a somewhat lower figure than calculated above 



114 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

It is obvious that at present pumping for irrigation is economically 
practicable only for raising high-priced crops and for raising ordinary 
crops in localities with exceptionally favorable conditions. The prin- 
cipal favorable conditions referred to are (1) soil that is not injuri- 
ously alkaline, sandy, or gravelly, (2) small depths to the water table 
(not much more than 10 feet), and (3) water-bearing beds at moderate 
depths that will yield freely. 

In the following table are given the estimated costs of the water 
thus far developed from flowing wells, the cost of drilling and casing 
being calculated at the same rate as in the Jones weUs (p. 102) although 
the actual cost for some of the wells was greater: 

Estimated cost of irrigation tvater developed from Jloiving ivells in Big Smoky Valley. 





Depth of 
well. 


Cost of 
well. 


Yield. 


Cost. 


Ovraer. 


Gallons 
minute. 


Second- 
foot. 


Acre-feet 
per season 
of 150 days. 


Per 
second- 
foot. 


Per acre- 
foot, inter- 
est at 7 per 
cent and 
deprecia- 
tion at 10 
per cent. 




Feet. 
127 
68 
101 
90 
40 
?133 


$221. 10 
112. 20 
167. 00 
148. 50 
66.00 

?219. 45 


120 
30 
40 

} ^» 

no 


0.267 
,067 
.089 

.067 
?.022 


79.4 
19.8 
26.5 
19.8 
?6.6 


$825 
1,675 
1,870 
3,200 
?9,975 


$0.47 


Do 


.96 


A.B.Millett 

Ed. Turner 


1.07 


Do 




Frank Gendron 


?5.65 



The depreciation will be found to vary greatly in both pumping 
plants and flowing wells, and the estimate of 10 per cent a year for 
this item is quite arbitrary. The depreciation wiU probably be as 
great in flowing weUs as in pumping plants, but it will involve 
different factors. It wifl not include the wear and tear of pumps and 
engines, but it wiU include the gradual diminution in yield that char- 
acterizes the history of many flowing weUs, especially where there is 
much development. 

The above table shows that in the areas where flows of any conse- 
quence can be obtained the cost of artesian water is much less than 
the cost of pumped water. Flowing weUs can profitably be sunk to 
procure water for irrigation in all such areas even though the soil may 
contain undesirable amounts of alkali, as is generally the case where 
flows are obtained. However, the satisfactory flowing-well areas will 
no doubt be found to be small and easily overdeveloped, and the 
reclamation of any considerable amount of land wiU probably be pos- 
sible only by pumping. 



GROUND WATER IN BIG SMOKY VALLEY^ NEV. 115 

AREAS. 

The areas that are best adapted for the deYelopment of ground- 
water supplies for irrigation in the upper valley are shown as nearly 
as is possible in Plate VI. The tracts best adapted for pumping lie 
within the area that is bounded on one side by the area of alkali soil 
and on the other by the Imes indicating a depth to water of 50 feet. 

Beginning in the axial part of the valle}^ east of Spencer's ranch, the 
principal tract widens southward till it reaches the alkali area, thence 
it extends as a broad belt along the northwest flank of the alkali area 
to the latitude of Schmidtleui's ranch, thence as a narrower belt on 
the west side of the alkali area nearly to Millett, where it becomes' 
very narrow. From the Jones ranch it extends as a belt of moderate 
width nearly to the Logan ranch, where it again becomes very narrow. 
A short distance south of Moore's ranch it expands into a belt of 
moderate width and thence extends to Wood's ranch and southward, 
for at least several miles, along the axis of the valley. It also mcludes 
a belt on the east side of the alkali area that extends northward to 
the CroweU ranch. A few small tracts may be found in other localities 
on the east side. The areas most promising for irrigation with arte- 
sian water are the lower parts of the tract just outlined and also smaU 
parts of the alkali area, especially along its west margin. 

The area best adapted for pumping in the lower valley is in the 
vicinity of Millers and is shown on Plate VII as bounded on the 
southwest by the alkali area and on its other three sides by the lines 
indicating a depth to water of 50 feet. If any flowmg wells of value 
for irrigation are obtained in the lower vaUey they will probably 
be in the lower part of this area, but the prospects even there are not 
especially good. The rest of the lower valley is practically without 
prospects. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

1. Several tens of thousands of acre-feet of groimd water is probably 
annually available for irrigation in Big Smoky Valley. 

2. Most of this supply is in the upper vaUey, but a part is in the 
vicinity of Millers in the lower valley. 

3. The water is in general of satisfactory quality for irrigation. 
Nearly aU of the poor water is in the southwestern part of the lower 
vaUey, where there is practically no prospect for irrigation. 

4. A small part of the ground-water supply can be recovered by 
means of flowing wells, but full use of the supply can be obtained 
only by pumping. 

5. Throughout the extensive areas in which the depth to the water 
table does not exceed 10 feet the soil contains injurious amounts of 
alkali. 



116 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES^ 1915. 

6. In the areas in which the Tiepth to the water table ranges be- 
tween 10 and 50 feet there is enough good soil to utilize all the ground- 
water supply. These areas, however, also contain considerable 
gravelly, sandy, and alkaline soil. 

7. There are some prospects of obtaining flowing wells wherever 
the water table is near the surface, but the prospects are best on the 
west side of the upper valley. 

8. The flowing-well areas will be found to lie chiefly within the 
areas of alkali soil, but they may extend into adjacent areas of 
good soil. 

9. Full development of the ground-water supply for irrigation will 
not be economically practicable until cheaper power or more valuable 
crops can be introduced than are now in sight. 

10. Developments believed to be practicable at present are (1) the 
sinking of flowing wells of moderate depths in the restricted areas 
where fairly copious flows can be obtained and the soil is not irre- 
claimably alkaline, and (2) the sinking of nonflowing wells and the 
installation of pumping plants for raising high-priced crops and for 
raising ordinary crops in localities where the conditions are excep- 
tionally favorable or where the well water can be used to supplement 
surface-water supplies. 

11. The raising of high-priced crops is practicable to only a small 
extent. Vegetables and small fruits could, it is believed, be profit- 
ably raised in the vicinity of Millers to supply Tonopah, Goldfield, 
and other local markets. 

12. The principal favorable conditions that are necessary in order 
to make pumping profitable for raising ordinary crops, such as 
alfalfa, are soil that is not injuriously alkaline, sandy, or gravelly; 
small depths to the water table (not much more than 10 feet); and 
water-bearing beds at moderate depths that will yield freely. 

13. Ground-water developments along some of the lines indicated 
could well be made by the ranchers now in the valley, who could 
afford to take some chances and who could advantageously use the 
well water to supplement their fluctuating surface-water supplies. 

14. A small number of new settlers could probably make a live- 
lihood by irrigating with ground water in Big Smoky Valley, pro- 
vided they had a few thousand dollars each to make the necessary 
developments and used good judgment as to locations. 

15. Existing conditions do not warrant the influx of a large number 
of settlers nor of any without means to sink wells and make other 
necessary improvements. Ill-advised immigration will inevitably 
lead to disappointment and suffering. 

o 



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